The strong Persian cultural influence on India came especially after the Arab conquest of Sind. The Persians contributed a major share in the output of Arabic literature. Islamic mysticism, Middle East and Medieval South Asia aspired to build bridges between different geo-cultural and geo-political regions. It was Persianized Islam, as distinct from Arabian Islam, that reigned in India for about eight centuries. Islamic mysticism (called Sufism) came to India many years before the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi (1206). In course of time Sufi hermitages became dotted all over northern India, and their leaders or Shaikhs divided the country among themselves as their religious spheres of influence. More than 200 years after the establishment of the Chisti and the Suhrawardi orders that appeared in India, a third major religious order was the Shuttari order. Mystical fraternities and sects of the Sufis grew and developed on two grounds—on the ground of certain ritual ceremonies and spiritual practices to be followed relating to the spiritual journey to God and on the ground of a particular form of speculative mysticism. The Sufi order is not named after a particular individual but rather a place that symbolizes an entire lineage. In the 11^th and 12^th Christian centuries there was a vigorous Sufi tradition in Khurasan (the North-East of modern Iran together with most of modern Afghanistan). It was characterized by `orders' (tariqa or silsila) of quite recent historical development. The eastern dominions of the empire, that is, Khurasan, Afghanistan, Sistan and Baluchistan were Buddhist or Hindu before they were converted. The Persian influence is also reflected in Siyar-al-Arifin where the author Shaikh Jamali offers a wealth of information about 13 major Chisti and Suhrawardi saints of the Delhi Sultanate.

During the Turko-Afghan period and later on in the Mughal era an Indo-Persian culture grew up influencing the entire gamut of socio-cultural, life-education, religious thought, language and literature. It is significant to note that whatever cultural influence came to India was from Persia, especially after the Arab conquest of Sind. The diffusion of Indian thought and science which took place among the Arabs affected the Persians and they contributed a major share in the output of Arabic literature. Thus both the Arabs and the Persians acted as the carriers not only of Islam and Iranianism to India but also of Indianism. Many Indian scholars went to Baghdad and enjoyed the patronage of the Caliph in the 8^th century. According to J N Sarkar, "Persia was the France of the east, the radiating center, the springhead of the culture, thought and fashion of the entire Islamic World". Even during the period of Perso-Mughal rivalry and conflict, the perennial influence of Persian culture on Mughal India constituted a well-known and significant chapter of that age. Persian influence may be traced to some aspects of social life. The great spring festival of Nauroz was borrowed from the Persians and celebrated in Mughal India for 19 days as compared to 12 days in Iran and also to Shiaism which had two broad divisions: The Sabiya (or The Seveners) and Isna Ashari (or Twelvers). The Ismailis or extreme Shiahs had their centers in Sind and Multan and became targets of orthodox rulers. But the Isna Ashari was much stronger especially in the Deccan Sultanates.

It was due to the influence of Persia that the Turko-Afghan rulers introduced the books of Persian scholars and philosophers. Persian language had become a subject of study. By the time of Akbar, Hindus became proficient in Persian. Even Akbar's educational policy was largely shaped by retinal sciences of Persia. Persian influence on education was also manifested in some provincial kingdoms. Janupur was called the `Shiraz of India' especially under Ibrahim Sharqi (1402-1440) and retained its importance throughout the Mughal period.

One of the fundamental characteristics of medieval socio-religious thought was Sufism. Persian influence was one of the many influences on it. A Persian, Bayazid (d. AD 875), played a very determinant role in the history of Tasawwaf. He was the first Islamic mystic to use the word `fana' (annihilation of the self through God in eternal life), which subsequently became the basis of Sufi philosophy. His Taifurian school was further developed by Hussain Ibn Mansur Al Hallaj. He suffered martyrdom (d. 921) for his monistic formula. It was a very important contributory factor in the growth of mysticism in Persia and India. He traveled widely in Khurasan, Persia, Turkistan and north-west India.

History and Culture Journal, Indo-Iranian Cultural Heritage, Indo-Persian Culture, Educational Policies, Cultural Exchanges, Gigantic Labors, Islamic World, Foreign Elements, Islamic Mysticism, Indian Cultural History, Sufi Writers, Heterodox Elements.