Graduating Students' Job Search Intensity: The Impact of Social Support Dimensions and Employment Commitment

Chetna Priyadarshini
Assistant Professor, Department of Human Resource Management and Soft Skills, IBS Hyderabad (Under IFHE - A Deemed to be University u/s 3 of the UGC Act, 1956), Hyderabad, Telangana, India. E-mail: chetna.priyadarshini@ibsindia.org

This paper intends to propose a conceptual framework on the personal and contextual antecedents of job search intensity among the final year job-seeking university students in India. It focuses on three dimensions of social support, viz., emotional, financial and informational, received by the graduating students during their job search process. The paper also proposes that the social support dimensions will have a differential impact on the job search behavior exhibited by the entry level job seekers. Further, it discusses the impact of employment commitment on job seekers' search intensity. Besides, the paper proposes a conceptual model that can be used to study the mediating role of job search selfefficacy and job search clarity on the relationship between social support dimensions and job search intensity, and employment commitment and job search intensity.

Introduction

In recent years, concern over elevating youth unemployment rate in India has been raised repeatedly by the national and international bodies (ASSOCHAM, 2016). The unemployment rate of educated youth has been reported to be higher than the overall unemployment rate in both rural and urban India (Ministry of Labor and Employment Labor Bureau, 2014). The inability to find a job often leads to depression, stress, anxiety (Wanberg et al., 1999), and a sense of incompetence among others (Kulik, 2000). In particular, unemployment is reported to be taxing amongst the recent college graduates due to lack of work experience (Swanson and Tokar, 1991). Given the significance of first job in one's life and the negative consequences associated with unemployment, it is relevant to examine the factors that contribute to an effective job search behavior by the new entrants and lead to favorable employment outcomes (Kreemers et al., 2021).

Job search behavior refers to identifying the presence of job opportunities and gathering more detailed information on selected job alternatives (Barber et al., 1994; and van Hooft et al., 2021). Kanfer et al. (2001) suggested that job search is a self-regulated behavior directed towards identification of and commitment to an employment goal. Boswell et al. (2006) stated that job search is a behavior through which time and effort are spent to acquire job-related information and pursue that information to generate employment alternatives. The most commonly studied proxy for job search behavior is job search intensity, which is conceptualized as the frequency of indulging in job search activities such as gathering job-related information, contacting potential employers, writing and updating resume, submitting a job application, etc. (Zacher, 2013). Past studies have reported that higher an individual's job search intensity, higher is the chance of meeting an employment goal (Blau, 1994; Wanberg et al., 1996; Wanberg et al., 2000; Zikic and Saks, 2009; Palanski et al., 2014; Saks et al., 2015; Lim et al., 2016a; Wanberg et al., 2016; and Yizhong et al., 2017). However, past research also suggests that the intensity of involvement in job search activities is largely influenced by individual level and situational factors such as personality traits, ability, experience, qualification, attitude towards employment, career planning, shifts in the labor market conditions, financial need, and receipt of social support during job search process (Wanberg et al., 2002). Given the high youth unemployment rate in India and in view of the importance of job search intensity in determining the attainment of employment goal, it is relevant to examine the factors that contribute to an effective job search behavior by the graduating students in India. Thus, the objective of the present study is to propose a conceptual model that can be used to examine the impact of personal and situational variables that lead to higher job search intensity amongst graduating students in India.

Literature Review
Social Support
Extant literature on job search (Liu et al. , 2014; and van Hoye et al., 2015) reveals that social support received by the job seekers fosters engagement in the job search activities. Further, social support has been found to positively influence job seekers' effort in searching for jobs and obtaining employment (Kanfer et al., 2001; Maddy et al., 2015; and Lim et al., 2016a). Rife and Belcher (1993) and Saks (2005) found that social support provided by family and/or friends was positively related to individuals' job search intensity. Past studies have also established social support as a coping mechanism for job seekers during experiences of setbacks and anxiety during the job search process (Rife and Belcher, 1993; Song et al., 2006; Zikic and Saks, 2009; and Lim et al., 2016b). However, though abundant literature suggests the vital role of social support in encouraging job seekers' indulgence in job search activities (Barrera and Ainlay, 1983; Vinokur and Caplan, 1987; Slebarska et al., 2009; Van Hoye et al., 2015; Lim et al., 2016b; and Faberman and Ismail, 2020), it has been majorly studied as a holistic construct without considering the types of social support being received during job search process (Malecki and Demaray, 2003; and Zikic and Klehe, 2006). The four potential forms of social support, namely, emotional, informational, instrumental, and appraisal (House, 1983) are likely to have differential impact on job search behavior exhibited by the job seekers. House (1983) defined emotional support as a combination of esteem, affect, trust, concern, and listening. Informational support was defined as advice, suggestion, directives, and information. Appraisal support included evaluative feedback and information helpful for self-evaluation. Lastly, instrumental support was defined as the aid in kind and financial assistance. However, as appraisal support was broadly defined as feedback and dissemination of information pertinent to self-evaluation, subsequent studies merged appraisal support into informational support category (Dennis, 2003; Heisler, 2006; Thoits, 2011; De Vries et al., 2014; and Li and Chen, 2016). Extant literature on healthcare has widely demonstrated the differential effect of these social support types on participants' outcomes; that varies depending on the type of support received by them (Shumaker and Brownell, 1984; Davis et al., 1998; Munoz-Laboy et al., 2014; and Houston et al., 2015). From the lens of extant literature and considering the relevance of each social support type during job search process, it is likely that availability of informational, instrumental, and emotional support will have differential impact on job seekers' job search behavior (Russell et al., 2015).

Employment Commitment
Employment commitment has been referred to as the importance attached to work/employment by an individual such that he/she would continue to work somewhere (if already employed) or keep searching for job (if unemployed) even after winning a lottery. Rowley and Feather (1987) noted that unemployed individuals with higher levels of employment commitment reported significantly higher levels of job search intensity. In this regard, Gowan and Gatewood (1992) also found a significant relationship between employment commitment and indulgence in job-search activity. However, despite the influence of job seekers' employment commitment on their job search behavior and subsequent outcomes, there is dearth of studies examining the role of employment commitment in developing economies like India, where large number of young population awaits to join the workforce every year.

Job Search Clarity
Job search clarity is known as the degree to which the job-seeking candidates have a clear idea of job search objectives such as the type of job, work or career desired. It is also referred to as the job search goal clarity or employment goal precision (Wanberg et al., 2002; Zikic and Saks, 2009; and Fort et al., 2011). According to social cognitive theory, goals motivate and direct an individual toward a certain behavior (Bandura, 1991). In the job search literature, job search clarity has been widely established as a goal mechanism and an antecedent of job search intensity (Zikic and Saks, 2009). Past studies in the job search context have noted that lower levels of job search clarity reduces the job search intensity due to more time being spent on exploration of career alternatives (Wanberg et al., 2002). However, on the contrary, job seekers with high levels of job search clarity have been found to direct their job search efforts and attention toward targeted job search activities, leading to higher levels of job search intensity (Cote et al., 2006).

Job Search Self-Efficacy
Job search self-efficacy can be described as an individual's belief in her/his potential to successfully participate and engage oneself in a diverse set of job search activities. According to Saks and Ashforth (1999), job search self-efficacy is the confidence an individual has on oneself to be able to successfully indulge in job search activities and attain employment. As per social cognitive theory, self-efficacy beliefs determine the amount of effort an individual will exert in pursuit of goals, the courses of action an individual will choose to pursue, and the extent of perseverance in the time of adversities and setbacks (Bandura, 1991). In the context of job search, higher levels of job search self-efficacy have been found to foster job search behavior and chances of (re)employment (Kanfer and Hulin, 1985). Rife and Kilty (1990) in their study noted that the unemployed individuals who had terminated their job search possessed less job search self-efficacy than the job seekers who were actively looking for jobs. Past studies also examined the impact of self-efficacy training on job seekers' job search outcomes and found a positive association between job search self-efficacy training and job search success (Caplan et al., 1989; and Eden and Aviram, 1993).

Hypothesis Development
Social Support and Job Search
Zikic and Klehe (2006) suggested that emotional support influences the quality of employment obtained by the job seekers. This implies that in the presence of emotional support, job seekers have greater clarity of the type of job and career they want and they act accordingly (Russell et al., 2015; and Van Hoye et al., 2015). Further, emotional support serves as a coping mechanism to overcome the setbacks during job search process and builds self-efficacy to reach the employment goals. On the other hand, lack of emotional support may lead job seekers to randomly search for jobs without adequate clarity of search objectives and self-efficacy (Blau, 1994; Wanberg et al., 1996; and Saks, 2005). Further, Bonaccio et al. (2014) in their qualitative study found that when job seekers' recollection of the job search process suggested lack of emotional support, they were more likely to fail in their job search activities and in turn cease searching for a job. In this regard, it is likely that job seekers who receive emotional support will be actively indulged in job search behavior despite adversities and setbacks. Therefore, the following hypotheses were formulated:

H1a: Emotional support will positively impact job search intensity.

H1b: Emotional support will positively impact job search clarity.

H1c: Emotional support will positively impact job search self-efficacy.

Extent literature on job search suggests that financial need and lack of resources lead to underemployment or poor quality of job search outcomes, as job seekers direct their job search efforts to find any job to financially support oneself (Van Hooft et al., 2013; Gerards and Welters, 2016; and Manroop and Richardson, 2016). The findings of Koen et al. (2012) also revealed that job seekers in immediate need of money do not develop clear job search objectives with respect to the work or career but are solely driven by the remuneration being offered by the job. On the other hand, receipt of instrumental support is likely to build self-efficacy beliefs amongst the job seekers and they may develop greater job search clarity and intensify their job search behavior to meet the employment goals. Further, with greater employment precision and self-efficacy, job seekers are likely to more effectively indulge in job search activities leading to high job search intensity. Based on the above discussion, it is postulated that:

H2a: Instrumental support will positively impact job search intensity.

H2b: Instrumental support will positively impact job search clarity.

H2c: Instrumental support will positively impact job search self-efficacy.

As job search behavior is widely defined as a process of gathering and pursuing job-related information, availability of informational support is likely to play a critical role in the job search process. Russell et al. (2015), in their recent study, found support for the positive impact of informational support on job search intensity and highlighted the relevance of informational support in the job search context. Thus, it is expected that with readily available information about the employment opportunities, job leads, and self-evaluation, job seekers will develop greater job search clarity and job search self-efficacy. Further, receipt of job-related information and job leads is likely to increase job seekers' job search intensity. Based on evidence from existing literature and the discussions above, the following set of hypotheses was formulated:

H3a: Informational support will positively impact job search intensity.

H3b: Informational support will positively impact job search clarity.

H3c: Informational support will positively impact job search self-efficacy.

Employment Commitment and Job Search

Job seekers with higher levels of employment commitment are the ones who keep looking for job despite having no economic need to work. They are passionate about their career and identify themselves with their work and job. Thus, it is likely that individuals with employment commitment would have more belief in their abilities to successfully perform the job search activities. Similarly, commitment to the employment goals is likely to bring greater clarity of job search objectives such as the nature and type of work or job one wants to attain. Further, job seekers who are committed to obtaining employment and find their lives monotonous without a job are likely to actively participate in job search activities and exhibit greater job search behavior when compared to individuals with lower levels of employment commitment. In view of the above discussion, it is postulated that: H4a: Employment commitment will positively impact job search intensity.

H4b: Employment commitment will positively impact job search clarity.

H4c: Employment commitment will positively impact job search self-efficacy.

As indicated earlier, job search clarity and job search self-efficacy have been found to positively influence job seekers' job search intensity. Similarly, social support dimensions and employment commitment are likely to improve job search clarity and job search self-efficacy as hypothesized above. Thus, according to the social cognitive theory framework, job search clarity and job search self-efficacy should both mediate the relationships between social support dimensions and job search intensity and employment commitment and job search intensity. Thus, the following hypotheses were formulated:

H5a: Job search clarity will positively impact job search intensity.

H5b: Job search clarity will mediate the relationship between emotional support and job search intensity.

H5c: Job search clarity will mediate the relationship between instrumental support and job search intensity.

H5d: Job search clarity will mediate the relationship between informational support and job search intensity.

H5e: Job search clarity will mediate the relationship between employment commitment and job search intensity.

H6a: Job search self-efficacy will positively impact job search intensity.

H6b: Job search self-efficacy will mediate the relationship between emotional support and job search intensity.

H6c: Job search self-efficacy will mediate the relationship between instrumental support and job search intensity.

H6d: Job search self-efficacy will mediate the relationship between informational support and job search intensity.

H6e: Job search self-efficacy will mediate the relationship between employment commitment and job search intensity.

Based on the set of hypotheses formulated above, the conceptual framework is presented in Figure 1.

Conclusion
Though job search clarity and job search self-efficacy are noted as vital mechanisms of self-regulatory process and play a critical role in accelerating job seekers' search intensity, there is paucity of research examining the factors that may strengthen job seekers' job search clarity and job search self-efficacy. In this regard, past studies have only examined the individual differences such as personality and dispositional variables as predictors of job search self-efficacy (Brown et al., 2006) and individual differences and career-relevant activities as predictors of job search-clarity (Cote et al., 2006; and Zikic and Saks, 2009). However, in the light of the social cognitive theory framework, situational factors also play a critical role in determining an individual's personal and cognitive states which in turn leads to an action. In particular, availability of social support such as emotional, informational and instrumental support will help job seekers in obtaining resources, information, feedback, and direction which may boost their job search clarity and job search self-efficacy. Further, although individual differences have been widely examined as predictors of job search clarity and job search self-efficacy, employment commitment of job seekers is also likely to foster job search clarity and self-efficacy. The present study, therefore, focuses on the social support dimensions and employment commitment as antecedents of job search self-efficacy, job search clarity, and the job search intensity of graduating students in India.

Proposed Implications: Empirical examination of the proposed conceptual framework is likely to reveal the importance of social search dimensions in the job search process and will prescribe both the job seekers and the university management along with career counselors to focus on the social support dimensions available during the job search process. Further, assessment of employment commitment can be made as a norm in order to ascertain the extent of job search clarity and job search self-efficacy possessed by the candidates which in turn would determine their job search intensity and subsequent success and employment status. The results of such empirical investigation are posited to serve as a guideline for universities and career counselors in catering to varying need of emotional, financial, and informational support by the graduating students.

References

1. Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (2016), "B and C Category B-Schools Producing Unemployable Pass-Outs", available at https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-cm/b-and-c-category-b-schools-producing-un-employable-pass-outs-assocham-116042800309_1.html
2. Bandura A (1991), "Social Cognitive Theory of Self-Regulation", Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 248-287.
3. Barber A E, Daly C L, Giannantonio C M and Phillips J M (1994), "Job Search Activities: An Examination of Changes Over Time", Personnel Psychology, Vol. 47, No. 4, pp. 739-766.
4. Barrera Jr M and Ainlay S L (1983), "The Structure of Social Support: A Conceptual and Empirical Analysis", Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 133-143.
5. Blau G (1994), "Testing a Two-Dimensional Measure of Job Search Behavior", Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 59, No. 2, pp. 288-312.
6. Bonaccio S, Gauvin N and Reeve C L (2014), "The Experience of Emotions During the Job Search and Choice Process Among Novice Job Seekers", Journal of Career Development, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 237-257.
7. Boswell W R, Roehling M V and Boudreau J W (2006), "The Role of Personality, Situational and Demographic Variables in Predicting Job Search Among European Managers", Personality and Individual Differences, Vol. 40, No. 4, pp. 783-794.
8. Brown D J, Cober R T, Kane K et al. (2006), "Proactive Personality and the Successful Job Search: A Field Investigation With College Graduates", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 91, No. 3, p. 717.
9. Caplan R D, Vinokur A D, Price R H and Van Ryn M (1989), "Job Seeking, Reemployment and Mental Health: A Randomized Field Experiment in Coping with Job Loss", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 74, No. 5, p. 759.
10. Cote S, Saks A M and Zikic J (2006), "Trait Affect and Job Search Outcomes", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 68, No. 2, pp. 233-252.
11. Davis M H, Morris M M and Kraus L A (1998), "Relationship-Specific and Global Perceptions of Social Support: Associations with Wellbeing and Attachment", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 74, No. 2, p. 468.
12. Dennis C L (2003), "Peer Support Within a Health Care Context: A Concept Analysis", International Journal of Nursing Studies, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 321-332.
13. De Vries L, Van Der Heijden A A, Van't Riet E et al. (2014), "Peer Support to Decrease Diabetes-Related Distress in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Design of a Randomised Controlled Trial", BMC Endocrine Disorders, Vol. 14, No. 1, p. 21.
14. Eden D and Aviram A (1993), "Self-Efficacy Training to Speed Reemployment: Helping People to Help Themselves", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 78, No. 3, p. 352.
15. Faberman R J and Ismail H A (2020), "How Do Unemployment Benefits Relate to Job Search Behavior", Chicago Fed Letter, No. 441, June.
16. Fort I, Jacquet F and Leroy N (2011), "Self-Efficacy, Goals and Job Search Behaviors", Career Development International, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 469-481.
17. Gerards R and Welters R (2016), "Impact of Financial Pressure on Unemployed Job Search, Job Find Success and Job Quality", No. 008, Research Center for Education and the Labour Market (ROA), Maastricht University.
18. Gowan M A and Gatewood R D (1992), "A Causal Model of the Activity Level of Individuals Following Involuntary Job Loss", Academy of Management Proceedings, Vol. 1992, No. 1, August, pp. 259-263, Academy of Management, Briarcliff Manor, NY.
19. Heisler M (2006), "Building Peer Support Programs to Manage Chronic Disease: Seven Models for Success", California Healthcare Foundation, Oakland, CA.
20. House J S (1983), Work Stress and Social Support, Addison-Wesley Series on Occupational Stress.
21. Houston E, Osborn A, Lyons T et al. (2015), "Exploring Perceived Social Support from Peer Facilitators in an Hiv Treatment Adherence Intervention for African American Patients: A Content Analysis of Participant Perspectives", Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 25, No. 6, pp. 487-501.
22. International Labour Organization, "Skill Mismatches Hurt Job Creation Prospects", Global Employment Trends 2013, available at https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_203840/lang--en/index.htm
23. Kanfer R and Hulin C L (1985), "Individual Differences in Successful Job Searches Following Layoff", Personnel Psychology, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 835-847.
24. Kanfer R, Wanberg C R and Kantrowitz T M (2001), "Job Search and Employment: A Personality-Motivational Analysis and Meta-Analytic Review", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 86, No. 5, p. 837.
25. Koen J, Klehe U C and Van Vianen A E (2012), "Training Career Adaptability to Facilitate a Successful School-to-Work Transition", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 81, No. 3, pp. 395-408.
26. Kreemers L M, Van Hooft E A and Van Vianen A E (2021), "If You Want a Job, Don't Just Search Hard, Search Systematically: A Field Study with Career Starters", European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, pp. 1-14, available at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/1359432X.2021.1955857
27. Kulik L (2000), "Jobless Men and Women: A Comparative Analysis of Job Search Intensity, Attitudes Toward Unemployment and Related Responses", Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 73, No. 4, pp. 487-500.
28. Li J and Chen S (2016), "A New Model of Social Support in Bereavement (SSB): An Empirical Investigation with a Chinese Sample", Death Studies, Vol. 40, o. 4, pp. 223-228.
29. Lim R H, Lent R W and Penn L T (2016a), "Prediction of Job Search Intentions and Behaviors: Testing the Social Cognitive Model of Career Self-Management", Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 63, No. 5, p. 594.
30. Lim V K, Chen D, Aw S S and Tan M (2016b), "Unemployed and Exhausted? Job-Search Fatigue and Reemployment Quality", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 92, February, pp. 68-78.
31. Liu S, Wang M, Liao H and Shi J (2014), "Self-Regulation During Job Search: The Opposing Effects of Employment Self-Efficacy and Job Search Behavior Self-Efficacy", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 99, No. 6, p. 1159.
32. Maddy III L M, Cannon J G and Lichtenberger E J (2015), "The Effects of Social Support on Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy and Job Search Efficacy in the Unemployed", Journal of Employment Counseling, Vol. 52, No. 2, pp. 87-95.
33. Malecki C K and Demaray M K (2003), "What Type of Support Do They Need? Investigating Student Adjustment as Related to Emotional, Informational, Appraisal and Instrumental Support", School Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 3, p. 231.
34. Manroop L and Richardson J (2016), "Job Search: A Multidisciplinary Review and Research Agenda", International Journal of Management Reviews, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 206-227.
35. Ministry of Labour and Employment Labour Bureau, "Report on Youth Employment-Unemployment Scenario (2013-14)", available at http://labourbureau.gov.in/youth%20report%20final.pdf
36. Munoz-Laboy M, Severson N, Perry A and Guilamo-Ramos V (2014), "Differential Impact of Types of Social Support in the Mental Health of Formerly Incarcerated Latino Men", American Journal of Men's Health, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 226-239.
37. Palanski M, Avey J B and Jiraporn N (2014), "The Effects of Ethical Leadership and Abusive Supervision on Job Search Behaviors in the Turnover Process", Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 135-146.
38. Rife J C and Belcher J R (1993), "Social Support and Job Search Intensity Among Older Unemployed Workers: Implications for Employment Counselors", Journal of Employment Counseling, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 98-107.
39. Rife J and Kilty K (1990), "Job Search Discouragement and the Older Worker: Implications for Social Work Practice", Journal of Applied Social Sciences, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 71-94.
40. Rowley K M and Feather N T (1987), "The Impact of Unemployment in Relation to Age and Length of Unemployment", Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 60, No. 4, pp. 323-332.
41. Russell J, Holmstrom A J and Clare D D (2015), "The Differential Impact of Social Support Types in Promoting New Entrant Job Search Self-Efficacy and Behavior", Communication Research Reports, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 170-179.
42. Saks A M (2005), "Job Search Success: A Review and Integration of the Predictors, Behaviors and Outcomes", Career Development and Counseling: Putting Theory and Research to Work, pp. 155-179, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
43. Saks A M and Ashforth B E (1999), "Effects of Individual Differences and Job Search Behaviors on the Employment Status of Recent University Graduates", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 335-349.
44. Saks A M, Zikic J and Koen J (2015), "Job Search Self-Efficacy: Reconceptualizing the Construct and Its Measurement", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 86, February, pp. 104-114.
45. Shumaker S A and Brownell A (1984), "Toward a Theory of Social Support: Closing Conceptual Gaps", Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 40, No. 4, pp. 11-36.
46. Slebarska K, Moser K and Gunnesch Luca G (2009), "Unemployment, Social Support, Individual Resources and Job Search Behavior", Journal of Employment Counseling, Vol. 46, No. 4, pp. 159-170.
47. Song Z, Wanberg C, Niu X and Xie Y (2006), "Action-State Orientation and the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Study of Job Search in China", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 68, No. 3, pp. 490-503.
48. Swanson J L and Tokar D M (1991), "College Students' Perceptions of Barriers to Career Development", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 92-106.
49. Thoits P A (2011), "Mechanisms Linking Social Ties and Support to Physical and Mental Health", Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 52, No. 2, pp. 145-161.
50. Van Hooft E A, Wanberg C R and Van Hoye G (2013), "Moving Beyond Job Search Quantity: Towards a Conceptualization and Self-Regulatory Framework of Job Search Quality", Organizational Psychology Review, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 3-40.
51. Van Hoye G, Saks A M, Lievens F and Weijters B (2015), "Development and Test of an Integrative Model of Job Search Behaviour", European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 544-559.
52. Van Hooft E A, Kammeyer-Mueller J D, Wanberg C R et al. (2021), "Job Search and Employment Success: A Quantitative Review and Future Research Agenda", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 106, No. 5, p. 674.
53. Vinokur A and Caplan R D (1987), "Attitudes and Social Support: Determinants of Job-Seeking Behavior and Wellbeing Among the Unemployed", Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 17, No. 12, pp. 1007-1024.
54. Wanberg C R, Watt J D and Rumsey D J (1996), "Individuals Without Jobs: An Empirical Study of Job-Seeking Behavior and Reemployment", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 81, No. 1, p. 76.
55. Wanberg C R, Kanfer R and Rotundo M (1999), "Unemployed Individuals: Motives, Job-Search Competencies and Job-Search Constraints as Predictors of Job Seeking and Reemployment", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 84, No. 6, p. 897.
56. Wanberg C R, Kanfer R and Banas J T (2000), "Predictors and Outcomes of Networking Intensity Among Unemployed Job Seekers", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 85, No. 4, p. 491.
57. Wanberg C R, Kammeyer-Mueller J D and Shi K (2002), "Job Loss and the Experience of Unemployment: International Research and Perspectives", in N Anderson, D S Ones, H K Sinangil and C Viswesvaran (Eds.), Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 2, pp. 253-269, Sage Publications, Inc.
58. Wanberg C R, Kanfer R, Hamann D J and Zhang Z (2016), "Age and Reemployment Success After Job Loss: An Integrative Model and Meta-Analysis", Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 142, No. 4, p. 400.
59. Yizhong X, Lin Z, Baranchenko Y et al. (2017), "Employability and Job Search Behavior: A Six-Wave Longitudinal Study of Chinese University Graduates", Employee Relations, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 223-239.
60. Zacher H (2013), "Older Job Seekers' Job Search Intensity: The Interplay of Proactive Personality, Age and Occupational Future Time Perspective", Ageing & Society, Vol. 33, No. 7, pp. 1139-1166.
61. Zikic J and Klehe U C (2006), "Job Loss as a Blessing in Disguise: The Role of Career Exploration and Career Planning in Predicting Reemployment Quality", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 69, No. 3, pp. 391-409.
62. Zikic J and Saks A M (2009), "Job Search and Social Cognitive Theory: The Role of Career-Relevant Activities", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 74, No. 1, pp. 117-127.